Human papillomavirus (HPV)

MICROBIOLOGY

• Non-enveloped DNA virus.
• HPV is widespread worldwide.
• >100 types recognized as capable of causing human infection with specific clinical manifestations.
• Papillomaviruses replicate in the skin or mucosal linings (such as the oral, genital, anal, or respiratory tracts).
• Some types have oncogenic potential.

CLINICAL

• The most common sexually transmitted infection in the U.S.
• Most infections are asymptomatic and resolve spontaneously within 2 years.
• Anogenital warts (condylomata acuminatum): see separate module on anogenital warts.
• Uterine cervical infection without visible warts:
  • Usually no clinical signs of infection.
  • While "high-risk" (oncogenic) virus types are responsible for 99.7% of all cervical cancer cases, most infections do not lead to cervical cancer.
  • Liquid-based cytology (e.g., ThinPrep®) and conventional Pap smears are both acceptable for cervical cancer cytology.
    • Liquid-based cytology permits co-testing for HPV, which may help guide the management of women whose Pap smear reveals ASCUS or LSIL, as well as women ≥ 30 years with normal Pap smears.
  • Cervical cancer screening may be undertaken by primary HPV testing every 5 years (preferred by the American Cancer Society, with screening beginning at 25 years through 65 years), co-testing (Pap + HPV testing) every 5 years, or the Pap test every 3 years.
    
    • USPSTF recommends Pap testing q3y for women 21-29y, and one of the three methods for women 30-65y.
• Perianal and intra-anal HPV infection without visible warts:
  • Oncogenic HPV types account for most anal intraepithelial neoplasia (AIN) cases and squamous cell carcinoma of the anorectal area.
  • The cellular transition zone of the anal verge is at higher risk of infection than other mucosal surfaces in the perirectal area.
  • Consideration of screening high-risk groups (e.g., MSM, people with HIV) for anal neoplasia using anal Pap smears is recommended by expert panels (CDC, American Society of Colon and Rectal Surgeons).
    • These recommendations are strengthened by the results of the ANCHOR study showing a lower risk of incident anal cancer among persons with anal HSIL. They receive treatment rather than active monitoring.
  • Provided access to appropriate follow-up is available, the HIV Medicine Association of the Infectious Diseases Society of America recommends anal Pap smears for all HIV-infected MSM, HIV-infected women with a history of receptive anal intercourse and/or an abnormal cervical Pap smear, and all HIV-infected patients with genital warts
• Cutaneous warts: common, plantar, flat
  • Primarily seen in children/adolescents but may be an occupational hazard in butchers, fish handlers and meat packers.
  • Caused by non-oncogenic HPV types (HPV-1, -2, -4, -27, and -57 most commonly).
  • Usually asymptomatic except at weight-bearing or frequent friction sites.
  • Spontaneous resolution of 50-90% within 1-5 years.
  • Patients with warts lasting >18 months despite treatment are more likely to be HLA-type DQA1*0301.
  • Common warts (verruca vulgaris):
    • The most common type of cutaneous wart.
    • Most prevalent in young children.
    • Usually on the hands.
    • A typical lesion is a brown, exophytic, hyperkeratotic papule [Fig 1]
  • Plantar warts (verruca plantaris):
    • The second most common type of wart.
    • Most common in adolescents/young adults.
    • Upon paring down [Fig 2], thrombosed capillaries are distinguished from callus.
  • Flat warts (verruca plana):
    • Most commonly seen in children.
    • Face [Fig 3], neck, chest, forearms, and legs flexor surfaces
• Recurrent respiratory papillomatosis: HPV-driven disease primarily of the larynx.
  • Two forms:
    • Juvenile-onset: transmitted from an HPV-infected mother during passage through the birth canal.
    • Adult-onset: believed to be an STD.
  • Detection usually follows complaints of voice changes or, in rapidly growing lesions, secondary to difficulty breathing.
  • Complications include obstructive, life-threatening respiratory compromise in infants/children.
  • The adult form is usually less aggressive than that seen in infants/children.
  • Caused by non-oncogenic HPV genotypes, most frequently HPV-6 and HPV-11.
• Other uncommon forms:
  • Buschke-Lowenstein tumors (giant condylomas, GCBL)
    • Slow-growing verrucous lesions are highly destructive to contiguous tissue. Metastases are uncommon.
    • Most commonly located on the glans penis in (usually uncircumcised) men > other anogenital mucosal surfaces, including the vulva, vagina, rectum, scrotum, and bladder.
    • HPV is suspected to cause types 6 and 11, which are commonly found, and types 16 and 18, which are occasionally found; type 54 is rarely found.
    • In the U.S., it accounts for 5-24% of penile cancers and 0.3-0.5% of all male malignancies.
    • Bladder lesions have been associated with schistosomiasis (e.g., Schistosoma haematobium).
    • Patients with suspected GCBL should be referred to dermatology for diagnosis and treatment.
  • Bowenoid papulosis
    • Flesh-colored to reddish papules outside the anogenital area.
    • HPV (usually type 16)-induced papules with distinctive histopathology (called Bowen’s disease when occurring outside the anogenital region and also seen in erythroplasia of Queyrat) of focal epidermal hyperplasia and dysplasia, and evidence of squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) in situ.
    • No racial or gender preferences were found in sexually active young adults with a mean age of 31 yrs.
  • Bowen’s disease (BD)
    • Gradually enlarging, well-demarcated, usually solitary (multiple in 10–20%) erythematous plaque with an irregular border and surface crusting or scaling, often of the lower leg (60-85% of cases).
    • It may occur at any age in adults, but is rare before age 30 (the sixth and seventh decades are most common).
    • Women account for up to 85% of cases.
    • Patients with suspected BD should be referred to a dermatologist for management.
    • HPV is suspected but not proven as the etiological agent in some or all cases.
  • Epidermodysplasia verruciformis
    • Rare, probably autosomal recessive (sex-linked also reported).
    • Disseminated (trunk, hands, upper and lower extremities, and face) characteristic flat to warty eruptions and reddish-brown pigmented plaques beginning early in life with frequent malignant transformation to squamous cell carcinomas (SCC) after age 30 years, first on sun-exposed areas.
    • Multiple HPV types often present simultaneously. HPV-5 and HPV-8 have been isolated in more than 90% of associated SCC.
    • Ddx includes SCC, common warts, flat warts, tinea versicolor, and benign papillomas.
    • Patients with the suspected disease should be referred to an oncologic dermatologist for definitive diagnosis and management.
  • Erythroplasia of Queyrat
    • Lesions on the glans penis (morphologically similar to Bowen’s disease lesions) have oncogenic potential.
    • Occur on the glans penis and under the prepuce, almost exclusively in uncircumcised men.
    • Histopathology is intraepithelial neoplasia.
    • HPV is suspected but not proven as the etiological agent in some or all cases.
    • Suspect cases should be referred to a dermatologist for management.

SITES OF INFECTION

• Cutaneous surfaces: plantar warts, common warts, flat warts; other rare manifestations noted above.
• Mucosa: genitalia in areas of coital friction, perianal/anal area, mouth, cervix
• Larynx/trachea: respiratory papillomatosis

TREATMENT

OTHER INFORMATION

• Subclinical genital HPV infection without exophytic warts: Routine use of 3-5% acetic acid to identify these areas is not recommended. In the absence of coexistent SIL, treatment is not recommended.
• Cervical cancer screening guidelines:
  • American Cancer Society primary HPV testing every 5y (preferred), self-collected HPV testing every 3y, co-testing (Pap + HPV testing) every 5y, or Pap test every 3y
    • ACS recommends sample collection by a health care provider, as any abnormal result on a self-collected test warrants an examination for further testing
    • Screen women 25y through 65y
    • To exit screening, average-risk individuals with a cervix are recommended to have negative hrHPV testing without (preferred) or with (acceptable) cytology at age 60y and at age 65y
  • The United States Preventive Services Task Force:
    • Pap test q3y for women 21-29y
    • Primary high-risk (hr) HPV testing every 5y (preferred) or co-testing (Pap + hrHPV testing) every 5y.
      • If hrHPV testing is not available, continue Pap test every 3 years for women 30-65 years
      • Patient-collected hrHPV testing is an appropriate method and should be offered as a screening option for average-risk women 30-65y
  • Management of abnormal findings should be undertaken in accordance with the 2019 consensus guidelines established by the American Society for Colposcopy and Cervical Pathology.
    • Patients are assigned to one of six clinical action thresholds that guide the next steps outlined in these guidelines.
    • A management guidelines application is available here: https://www.asccp.org/mobile-app.
  • Stop screening at age 65 years (assuming adequate negative prior screening results)
• The HPV vaccine is an anti-cancer vaccine and provides the best chances to avoid the development of cancer if given before exposure.

Basis for recommendation

1. Christine B, Bush M, Thurakal A, et al. New Cervical Cancer Screening Guidelines From the US Department of Health and Human Services: Strengthening Women's Preventive Health. JAMA. 2026.  [PMID:41489823]

   Comment: This 2026 update breaks from past guidelines by recommending that the clinician or patient obtain samples for high-risk HPV testing for screening women 30-65. The guidelines formally recognize that patient-collected hrHPV samples are an appropriate screening option for average-risk women aged 30–65. Women may collect samples either in a clinical setting or, with approved tests, potentially at home, to increase access and participation in screening. The update includes new language requiring most private insurers to cover all necessary follow-up testing (e.g., cytology, biopsy, colposcopy, extended genotyping, dual stain, pathologic evaluation) without cost sharing when indicated to complete the cervical cancer screening process. Coverage under Section 2713 of the Public Health Service Act is set to begin in 2027 for most insurance plans.
   

2. Meites E, Szilagyi PG, Chesson HW, et al. Human Papillomavirus Vaccination for Adults: Updated Recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2019;68(32):698-702.  [PMID:31415491]

   Comment: This update builds on earlier recommendations (2016)
   for vaccination against human papillomavirus (HPV), which is routinely recommended at age 11 or 12. Catch-up recommendations apply to persons not vaccinated at age 11 or 12 years. Catch-up HPV vaccination is now recommended for all persons through age 26 years. For adults aged 27 through 45 years, the public health benefit of HPV vaccination in this age range is minimal; shared clinical decision-making is recommended because some persons who are not adequately vaccinated might benefit.
   

3. Meites E, Kempe A, Markowitz LE. Use of a 2-Dose Schedule for Human Papillomavirus Vaccination - Updated Recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2016;65(49):1405-1408.  [PMID:27977643]

   Comment: This 2016 report provides further detail on the revised HPV vaccine recommendations, including the use of only the 9vHPV vaccine.
   

References

4. Perkins RB, Wolf AMD, Church TR, et al. Self-collected vaginal specimens for human papillomavirus testing and guidance on screening exit: An update to the American Cancer Society cervical cancer screening guideline. CA Cancer J Clin. 2026;76(1):e70041.  [PMID:41342729]

   Comment: Updated guideline including the option for sample self-collection for HPV screening for average-risk women and average-risk individuals with a cervix.
   Rating: Important
   

5. Palefsky JM, Lee JY, Jay N, et al. Treatment of Anal High-Grade Squamous Intraepithelial Lesions to Prevent Anal Cancer. N Engl J Med. 2022;386(24):2273-2282.  [PMID:35704479]

   Comment: The landmark study was the first to show that, like cervical cancer, anal cancer can be prevented through precancerous lesions (HSIL) treatment.
   Rating: Important
   

6. Rosenblum HG, Lewis RM, Gargano JW, et al. Human Papillomavirus Vaccine Impact and Effectiveness Through 12 Years After Vaccine Introduction in the United States, 2003 to 2018. Ann Intern Med. 2022;175(7):918-926.  [PMID:35576590]

   Comment: NHANES data demonstrate that the introduction of HPV vaccination lowered 4vHPV-type prevalence by 85% overall in 2015-2018, including 90% among vaccinated females and 74% among unvaccinated females, highlighting a herd immunity benefit.
   

7. Rosenblum HG, Lewis RM, Gargano JW, et al. Declines in Prevalence of Human Papillomavirus Vaccine-Type Infection Among Females after Introduction of Vaccine - United States, 2003-2018. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2021;70(12):415-420.  [PMID:33764964]

   Comment: NHANES data demonstrate that the introduction of HPV vaccination has lowered HPV prevalence by 81% (females aged 20-24 years) and 88% (females aged 14-19 years) compared with the pre-vaccine era.
   

8. Thompson MA, Horberg MA, Agwu AL, et al. Primary Care Guidance for Persons With Human Immunodeficiency Virus: 2020 Update by the HIV Medicine Association of the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis. 2021;73(11):e3572-e3605.  [PMID:33225349]

   Comment: This updated guide to the primary care of HIV-infected persons now endorses screening HIV-infected persons with anal cytology to permit early detection of and precursors to anal cancer, provided access to appropriate referral and follow-up is available.
   

9. Egemen D, Cheung LC, Chen X, et al. Risk Estimates Supporting the 2019 ASCCP Risk-Based Management Consensus Guidelines. J Low Genit Tract Dis. 2020;24(2):132-143.  [PMID:32243308]

   Comment: Explanation of the risk estimates supporting consensus guidelines established in 2019 by the American Society for Colposcopy and Cervical Pathology regarding the management of abnormal findings from cervical cancer screening. Source data include 1.5 million individuals screened through Kaiser Permanente from 2003-2017.
   

10. Stefanaki C, Lagogiani I, Kouris A, et al. Cryotherapy versus imiquimod 5% cream combined with a keratolytic lotion in cutaneous warts in children: A randomized study. J Dermatolog Treat. 2016;27(1):80-2.  [PMID:25886088]

    Comment: A small study in children demonstrated that imiquimod 5% + salicylic acid 15% was superior to cryotherapy in eradicating plantar warts at three months. There were no differences in eradication rates for common and plane warts between the two groups.
    

11. Panagiotou OA, Befano BL, Gonzalez P, et al. Effect of bivalent human papillomavirus vaccination on pregnancy outcomes: long term observational follow-up in the Costa Rica HPV Vaccine Trial. BMJ. 2015;351:h4358.  [PMID:26346155]

    Comment: Observational long-term follow-up data obtained from women who received bivalent HPV vaccination showed no risk of miscarriage for pregnancies conceived less than 90 days from vaccination. Among pregnancies conceived at any time from bivalent HPV vaccination, exposure was not associated with an increased risk of miscarriage overall or in subgroups, except for miscarriages at weeks 13-20 (relative risk 1.35), suggesting a need for further study.
    

12. Joura EA, Giuliano AR, Iversen OE, et al. A 9-valent HPV vaccine against infection and intraepithelial neoplasia in women. N Engl J Med. 2015;372(8):711-23.  [PMID:25693011]

    Comment: This randomized, double-blind study in 14,215 women showed the 9vHPV vaccine prevented cervical, vulvar, and vaginal disease and persistent infection associated with HPV-31, 33, 45, 52, and 58. Antibody responses to HPV-6, 11, 16, and 18 were noninferior to those among participants who received the 4vHPV vaccine, and the incidence of disease related to HPV-6, 11, 16, and 18 was similar in the two vaccine groups.
    

13. Olguin-García MG, Jurado-Santa Cruz F, Peralta-Pedrero ML, et al. A double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial of oral isotretinoin in the treatment of recalcitrant facial flat warts. J Dermatolog Treat. 2015;26(1):78-82.  [PMID:24547881]

    Comment: A placebo-controlled study of 31 adults with treatment-refractory facial flat warts showed a significant benefit of isotretinoin 30 mg/d for 12 weeks.
    

14. Sterling JC, Gibbs S, Haque Hussain SS, et al. British Association of Dermatologists' guidelines for the management of cutaneous warts 2014. Br J Dermatol. 2014;171(4):696-712.  [PMID:25273231]

    Comment: Nice guideline document that lists the many therapeutics that have been utilized to manage cutaneous warts. Only salicylic acid gets an "A" recommendation, based in part upon studies referenced in the 2012 Cochrane review listed above.
    

15. Kwok CS, Gibbs S, Bennett C, et al. Topical treatments for cutaneous warts. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2012.  [PMID:22972052]

    Comment: This lengthy review of topical therapies for cutaneous warts finds that only salicylic acid is superior to placebo, despite the many previously pursued remedies.
    

16. Sturgis EM, Cinciripini PM. Trends in head and neck cancer incidence in relation to smoking prevalence: an emerging epidemic of human papillomavirus-associated cancers? Cancer. 2007;110(7):1429-35.  [PMID:17724670]

    Comment: This paper synthesizes and reviews head and neck cancer incidence and smoking prevalence over the past 70 years. Notably, squamous cell carcinoma of the head and neck (SCCHN) has declined due to decreased smoking rates. However, certain HN cancers have not shown a similar decline, particularly among young adults aged < 45 years. These include cancer of the tongue and pharynx (including tonsils with a 4% increase per year over the past 30 years. This trend is thought to reflect the increase in HPV 16/18 associated cancers with the likely exposures via oral sex.
    Rating: Important
    

17. Castle PE, Schiffman M, Glass AG, et al. Human papillomavirus prevalence in women who have and have not undergone hysterectomies. J Infect Dis. 2006;194(12):1702-5.  [PMID:17109342]

    Comment: A prevalence study report from the National Cancer Institute, NIH, examines HPV prevalence among age-matched women enrolled in a large northwest U.S. HMO, stratified by hysterectomy history (n=573 with hysterectomy [WH] and n=581 with no hysterectomy [WNH]). Routine pelvic examinations were conducted, ethanol-fixed Pap smears were collected (cuff smears collected on WH), and a vaginal lavage using 10 mL of normal saline was conducted. The washed sample was used for HPV testing. There was no significant difference in HPV infection status between the 2 groups [WH=86.2% HPV negative vs. WNH=84.0%] nor a difference in HPV genotype distribution among the 2 groups [WH=1.4% with HPV-16 vs. WNH=1.6% and WH=9.2% non-oncogenic types vs. WNH=9.5%] Notably, however, in the absence of a cervix, WH women are at lower risk of cancer in the presence of HPV-16 than those women with a cervix in place (WNH).
    Rating: Important
    

18. Villa LL, Costa RL, Petta CA, et al. High sustained efficacy of a prophylactic quadrivalent human papillomavirus types 6/11/16/18 L1 virus-like particle vaccine through 5 years of follow-up. Br J Cancer. 2006;95(11):1459-66.  [PMID:17117182]

    Comment: This Merck Research Laboratories-funded study reports on data collected during its multicenter phase II/III RCTs (used to support its now-licensed vaccine), examining the efficacy of the prophylactic quadrivalent HPV 6/11/16/18 L1 VLP vaccine up to 5 years of follow-up. 552 women (aged 16-23 years) were enrolled in the trial from Brazil, Finland, Sweden, Norway, and the USA; 276 entered the vaccination arm and 275 the placebo arm. After vaccination on days 0, 2m, and 6 m, 256 women entered follow-up for months 7-36 and 260 similarly were followed in the placebo arm. After 3 years, non-USA participants were eligible for a further 2 years of follow-up. At the 5-year point, the overall incidence of infection with vaccine-containing genotypes was reduced by 96% in the vaccine vs. placebo group. There were no vaccine-genotype-related precancerous lesions or genital warts in the vaccinated group, compared with 6 in the placebo arm (95% CI = 12-100%). The anti-HPV geometric mean titers in sera remained significantly higher among vaccinees than among women who became infected with one or more of the 4 vaccine genotypes during the follow-up period.
    Rating: Important
    

19. Arain S, Walts AE, Thomas P, et al. The Anal Pap Smear: Cytomorphology of squamous intraepithelial lesions. Cytojournal. 2005;2(1):4.  [PMID:15715910]

    Comment: Report of a study to determine the usefulness and limitations of anal pap smears in screening for anal squamous intraepithelial lesions (ASIL) among 198 of 200 consecutively collected liquid media-based smears. The findings from these slides were correlated with surgical biopsies. Subsequently, the authors examined the findings at 6-month follow-up (smears and biopsies) among men (n = 71) who returned for evaluation by their usual providers. Liquid-based anal smears had a high sensitivity (98%) for detecting ASIL but a low specificity (50%) for predicting the severity of the abnormality in the subsequent biopsy. Patients with cytologic diagnoses of atypical squamous cells of undetermined significance (ASC-US) and low-grade SIL (LSIL) had a significant risk (46-56%) of HSIL at biopsy. These data suggest that 1) liquid collection media are more sensitive than slide Pap smear results reported in the literature, and 2) all patients with a diagnosis of ASC-US and above should be recommended for biopsy.
    Rating: Important
    

20. Rubin MA, Kleter B, Zhou M, et al. Detection and typing of human papillomavirus DNA in penile carcinoma: evidence for multiple independent pathways of penile carcinogenesis. Am J Pathol. 2001;159(4):1211-8.  [PMID:11583947]

    Comment: A study of penile condylomata, dysplasia and carcinoma histological subtypes using PCR was applied to formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded tissue samples from the US and Paraguay. HPV DNA in 42% of penile CA; 90% of dysplasia; 100% condyloma. Keratinizing SCC and verrucous CA were much less likely to be positive for HPV than basaloid and warty tumor subtypes of CA, suggesting that there may be different pathogenetic mechanisms for penile cancer.
    Rating: Important
    

21. Minkoff H, Ahdieh L, Massad LS, et al. The effect of highly active antiretroviral therapy on cervical cytologic changes associated with oncogenic HPV among HIV-infected women. AIDS. 2001;15(16):2157-64.  [PMID:11684935]

    Comment: The Women’s Interagency HIV study was conducted in 5 US cities among HIV-infected women using a q6 mo Pap smear and cervicovaginal lavage for HPV DNA testing stratified by HAART exposure. Women w/ persistent HPV are more likely to have lesions progress. CD4 cell count and Pap smear status-adjusted data found that women on HAART were 40% more likely to have regression of lesions.
    Rating: Important
    

22. Woodman CB, Collins S, Winter H, et al. Natural history of cervical human papillomavirus infection in young women: a longitudinal cohort study. Lancet. 2001;357(9271):1831-6.  [PMID:11410191]

    Comment: A very important contribution to our understanding of the natural hx of genital HPV in women. A 3-yr cohort study of 1075 15-19 y/o women who were cytologically WNL and HPV neg at the start. Cumulative incidence of HPV infection over 3 years was 44% w/HPV type 16, the most common type. Among 246 w/ abnormal Pap, 28 progressed to high-grade. High viral load was associated with a higher cumulative risk of an abnormal Pap smear.
    

23. Kjaer SK, Chackerian B, van den Brule AJ, et al. High-risk human papillomavirus is sexually transmitted: evidence from a follow-up study of virgins starting sexual activity (intercourse). Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2001;10(2):101-6.  [PMID:11219765]

    Comment: This was an outstanding clinical study conducted by these Danish investigators to determine the role of sexual intercourse in HPV transmission, examine the determinants for seroconversion, and the correlation between HPV DNA, abnormal cervical cytology, and serological response to HPV 16. 100 virgins and 105 monogamous women were randomly selected from a population-based cohort in Denmark. Only virgins who initiated sexual activity became HPV DNA positive. The most important determinant for the acquisition was the number of sexual partners between the 2 examinations conducted during the 2-yr study.
    

24. Rousseau MC, Pereira JS, Prado JC, et al. Cervical coinfection with human papillomavirus (HPV) types as a predictor of acquisition and persistence of HPV infection. J Infect Dis. 2001;184(12):1508-17.  [PMID:11740725]

    Comment: A cohort of 1400 Brazilian women was examined for an association between an index HPV infection and its effect on the acquisition and persistence of other types. This question is important to vaccine development if only certain virus types are targeted. The persistence of HPV infection appeared to be independent of the presence of coinfection with multiple types, including type 16, which is associated with approximately 50% of cervical cancers.
    

25. Schlecht NF, Kulaga S, Robitaille J, et al. Persistent human papillomavirus infection as a predictor of cervical intraepithelial neoplasia. JAMA. 2001;286(24):3106-14.  [PMID:11754676]

    Comment: A landmark cohort study examining the natural history of HPV in 1611 Brazilian women with no cytological lesions on enrollment and HPV test results from the 1st 2 study visits. Repeated measurements were taken over 24 months. Incidence of SILs was 0.73/1000 women-months among those free of HPV at the initial 2 visits; 8.68 among women w/ HPV type 16 or 18 persisting over both visits. RR of incident SIL was 10.19 for persistence with any oncogenic type; higher among those with HPV 16 and 18. It supports the use of an algorithm that incorporates HPV testing if ASCUS is identified.
    Rating: Important
    

26. Ho GY, Bierman R, Beardsley L, et al. Natural history of cervicovaginal papillomavirus infection in young women. N Engl J Med. 1998;338(7):423-8.  [PMID:9459645]

    Comment: 608 women were followed at 6-mo intervals over 3 yrs. The cumulative 36-month incidence of HPV infection was 43% (C.I. 36-49%). The average annual incidence was 14%. The median duration of new infections was 7-10 mo. Persistence of HPV for >6 mo related to older age, type of HPV associated w/cervical CA, and infection with multiple types of HPV. Risk factors for infection: younger age, Hispanic ethnicity, black race, increased number of vaginal sex partners, high frequency of vaginal sex, alcohol consumption, anal sex, partner with a high number of lifetime sex partners, and those who were not in school.
    Rating: Important
    

27. Palefsky JM, Holly EA, Ralston ML, et al. Prevalence and risk factors for human papillomavirus infection of the anal canal in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-positive and HIV-negative homosexual men. J Infect Dis. 1998;177(2):361-7.  [PMID:9466522]

    Comment: This is a report of a study to characterize anal HPV among MSM (n=346) and without (n=262) HIV infection recruited from enrollees among 3 San Francisco cohort groups. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) detected HPV DNA in anal specimens collected using dacron swabs placed in transport media in 93% of HIV-positive (H-Pos) and 61% of HIV-negative (H-Neg) men. The detected HPV genotype spectrum was similar in both groups, with HPV-16, an oncogenic genotype, the most commonly detected. Coinfection with multiple HPV types: H-Pos=73%, H-Neg=23%. A first-generation hybrid capture assay on unamplified collected material was used to examine oncogenic genotype (16/18/31/33/35/39/45/51/52/56/58) and non-oncogenic (6/11/42/43/44) spectra of infection among H-Pos men. A lower CD4 count was associated with higher oncogenic levels than with non-oncogenic types. HIV-positive men who were positive by hybrid capture for group B HPV type (p< 0.005.
    Rating: Important
    

28. Marrazzo JM, Koutsky LA, Stine KL, et al. Genital human papillomavirus infection in women who have sex with women. J Infect Dis. 1998;178(6):1604-9.  [PMID:9815211]

    Comment: Genital HPV, determined by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) detection of HPV DNA (genotypes 6, 11, 16, 18, 31, 33, 35, 39, and 45) and by the prevalence of HPV-6 and -16 serum antibodies, was investigated in 149 sexually active women. HPV DNA was detected in 30% of subjects; of these, 20% had types 31/33/35/39, 18% had type 16, and 2% had types 6 or 11. 21 subjects reported no prior sex with men; HPV DNA was detected in 19% and squamous intraepithelial lesions in 14%. Current smoking status correlated with detectable HPV DNA.
    Rating: Important
    

29. MASSING AM, EPSTEIN WL. Natural history of warts. A two-year study. Arch Dermatol. 1963;87:306-10.  [PMID:13933441]

    Comment: An old study assessed the natural history of warts by following 1000 institutionalized children for two years. Source of the oft-repeated statement that two-thirds of warts spontaneously resolve in two years.
    

Media

Common wart

Wart on finger, termed verruca vulgaris or the common wart.

Source CDC/R.S. Hibbets

Plantar wart

Upon paring down lesion, evidence of thrombosed capillaries distinguish from callus. Also, calluses tend to be non-painful.

Source: Wikimedia, Δρ. Χαράλαμπος Γκούβας

Flat wart

Flat wart, also called verruca plana, in a middle-aged women.

Source: Wikimedia commons

Iffat Hassan, Taseer Bhat, Hinah Altaf, Farah Sameem, Qazi Masood

Condylomata acuminata

Genital warts due to HPV are on the shaft of the penis. May also be seen on the vulva, vagina, cervix, perineum and perianal areas.

Source: CDC/Dr. M. F. Rein